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Animal experimentation is limited in many curricula due to the expense, lack of adequate animal facilities and equipment, and limited experience of the teachers. There are also ethical concerns dealing with the comfort and safety of the animals. To…

When a patient's total serum calcium level drops below 8.9 mg/dL, first determine whether the hypocalcemia is real. Measure the serum level of ionized calcium or (because 40% of calcium is bound to protein) adjust the total serum calcium level for…

When an infant or child younger than 36 months presents with fever that has no obvious source, the major concern is overlooking a serious bacterial infection. Ask about underlying medical problems, previous hospitalizations, recent infectious…

Hypomagnesemia may be caused by renal losses (often related to drugs or diabetes), inadequate intake or inadequate intestinal absorption. Manifestations may include arrhythmias, particularly during myocardial ischemia or with digitalis use, and such…

A systematic approach to the successful investigation and management of oliguria uses a reproducible method called the Rules of Three: consideration of three sources of olguria (postrenal, prerenal, and renal), three noninvasive tools for evaluation…

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